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Journal of Ethnic Foods
journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net
Q1 Q14
Original Article
Gastronomy as an element of attraction in a tourist destination: the case of Lima, Peru
Jesús Claudio Perez Galvez a'1, Tomás López-Guzman b' *, Franklin Cordova Buiza c'2, Miguel Jesús Medina-Viruel a'1
a Department of Applied Economics, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, ceiA3, Spain, Faculty of Law and Economics, University of Cordoba, Spain b Department of Applied Economics, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, ceiA3, Spain, Faculty of Labour Sciences, C/ Adarve, 30 14071-Córdoba (Spain), University of Córdoba, Spain
c Department of Economics, Jr. Junín 355, Miraflores, Continental University of Lima, Peru
ARTICLE INFO
Article history: Received 29 August 2017 Received in revised form 31 October 2017 Accepted 1 November 2017 Available online xxx
Keywords: Gastronomy Latin America Lima
Segmentation Tourism
ABSTRACT
In recent years, gastronomy has become one of the main sources of attraction in the tourist destinations. The objective of this study is to present the results of a research conducted on the foreign tourists in the city of Lima, a World Heritage Site, which is considered as one of the main gastronomic leaders of the world.. The principal results indicate that foreign tourists have different attitudes toward the local gastronomy. Therefore, the foreign tourists were arranged, following the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen (2016), in three different groups: survivors, enjoyers, and experiencers. Furthermore, it shows that the foreign tourists have different motivations regarding gastronomy, which we have grouped into three dimensions: new food experience, culture, and socialization. The results show that the dimensions new food experience and socialization contribute to a greater degree to gastronomic satisfaction.
© 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Q5 1. Introduction
The World's 50 Best Restaurants List corresponding to the year 2017 indicates that two of the 10 best restaurants of the world are found in the city of Lima (Peru). Specifically, they are the Central Restaurant (position 4) and the Maido Restaurant (position 8). This data reinforce the importance of Peruvian gastronomy in recent years. In fact, culinary resources are currently one of the great images that Peru holds as a tourist destination [1] and one of the greatest commitments of the country [2].
This article aims to contribute to the existing academic literature on the gastronomic experiences of the visitors in tourist destinations. It presents research that focuses on the segmentation, motivation, and satisfaction of the foreign tourists visiting the city of Lima (Peru) in relation to gastronomy. Segmenting the tourists and
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: dt1pegaj@uco.es (J.C Pérez Calvez), tomas.lopez@uco.es (T. Lépez-Cuzmén), fcordova@continental.edu.pe (F.C. Buiza), mjmedina@uco.es (M.J. Medina-Viruel).
1 Phone: + 34 957 2 88 33.
2 Phone: + 51 01 2132760.
analyzing their motivations are essential for understanding the importance of local food. Therefore, although all the tourists necessarily consume food, their perceptions and their motivations in relation to gastronomy can be very different [3,4]. The travelers can be interested in the local food and in obtaining gastronomic experiences, and these experiences can even play an important role in the choice of the destination [5,6] and in their level of satisfaction.
The study of gastronomic tourism involves the analysis of the visitor's behavior. A tourist who is not especially interested in the gastronomy of the site or who does not travel with the principal or secondary intention of trying behaves like a visitor who only needs to have nourishment during his time in the chosen destination. On the contrary, the tourists interested in gastronomy are found. They travel with the principal and/or secondary motivation of discovering a different cuisine, learning more about it, relaxing by tasting the typical local dishes, cultural enrichment, etc. Therefore, in this regard, it is important to analyze the perception that the visitors have with respect to the local food, especially in the developing countries [7], and the authenticity of the local gastronomy [8,9]. Furthermore, the relationship between food and tourism can be examined from three different perspectives [10]: consumer, producer, or destination development.
https://doi.org/10.1016/jjef.2017.11.002
2352-6181/© 2017 Korea Food Research Institute. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
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2. Review of the literature
2.1. Segmentation of tourists according to gastronomy
With respect to the importance gastronomy has in the segmentation of the tourists of a certain destination, it is necessary to respond, following Kivela and Crotts [11], to three different issues: first, the analysis of the relationship the tourists have with gastronomy, in other words, whether or not gastronomy is a principal or secondary motivation for visiting the destination, while at the same time, determining the sociodemographic profile of each of the groups; second, the analysis of the relationship that each of the groups has with respect to the local food; and third, the study of the economic impact that each of these groups of tourists has on the city.
In relation to the segmentation of the travelers and their relationship with the local food, one of the first segmentations that was made, and which has been useful as a basis for an entire series of subsequent research, is that made by Charters and Ali-Knight [12] where the tourists are divided according to their interest in wine (and gastronomy). In this way, Charters and Ali-Knight [12] segmented this type of tourists into four different groups: the wine lover, the connoisseur, the wine interested, and the wine novice. Hjalager [3], focusing exclusively on gastronomy, segmented the travelers into four different groups: recreational, existential, diversionary, and experimental gastronomy tourists. In turn, Hall et al [9] presented a segmentation model of the gastronomic tourist that allows using tools to identify the importance that gastronomy and/or wine has in the tourist destinations.
The scientific literature approaches the segmentation of the visitors based on gastronomy in three different fields: tourist destinations [11,13] and food festivals [14]; involvement and perceived satisfaction [6]; and food markets [15].
In this research, the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16] is followed. This model is based on segmenting the visitors by analysis of the responses to three questions: how important are food and eating as motives for traveling; how important are food and eating experiences when choosing a destination; and how important are food and eating for travel satisfaction. In line with these questions, Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16] indicated three types of travelers: first, experiencers, those who travel to gain food experiences; second, enjoyers, those with a positive attitude toward food; and third, survivors, those with very little or no interest in food.
In accordance with the review of the literature, the following hypothesis would be examined:
H1. Tourists show different attitudes toward gastronomy as a determining variable in their choice of destination.
2.2. Socioeconomic characteristics
The analysis of the sociodemographic profile of tourists and their relationship with gastronomy is carried out in different studies. McKercher et al [13] indicated that the general academic level of the tourists most interested in gastronomy is the university, and they are aged between 36 and 45 years and have a high salary level. López-Guzmán and Sánchez-Cañizares [17] indicated that the educational level is high because 65% of the surveyed tourists interested in gastronomy presented university studies and a mean age of around 40 years. Mgonja et al [7] showed that the visitors interested in gastronomy are usually middle-aged, with university education and high economic income.
According to the literature review, the hypotheses to examine would be the following:
H2. The more favorable attitude toward the local gastronomy increases with the age of the tourist.
H3. The travelers with special interest in gastronomy have a higher academic level.
23. Motivations and gastronomy
The study of gastronomic tourism involves referring to the visitor's behavior. In line with Fields [8], it is possible to identify four types of gastronomic motivations associated with tourism: the physical type, the cultural type, the interpersonal type, and the status and prestige type. Therefore, based on the motivations in relationship with gastronomy, Quan and Wang [18] presented a conceptual model of the tourist experience in which the tourist, when traveling, is found with different primary and secondary motivations. Gastronomy would be framed as a primary or secondary motivation. It would be a primary motivation, for example, for those people who visit a certain place with the principal aim of enjoying its culinary offer. It would be a secondary motivation, for example, for those people who, although their primary motivation is not that of knowing the gastronomic wealth of a destination, consider this option as very important in planning their trip.
Anderson et al [10] grouped these motivations into different experiences that can be obtained: sensory, cultural, and social. In turn, Babolian Hendijani [19] indicated that the gastronomic experience can be a fundamental motivation for visiting a certain destination.
In line with the literature review, the following hypothesis would be examined:
H4. The culinary motivations are heterogeneous and conditioned by a tourist's attitude toward gastronomy on his/her trips.
2.4. Gastronomy and satisfaction
A tourist destination is something more than a conglomerate of natural, cultural, or artistic resources because it also has to reflect the experience that the traveler seeks [20]. Based on this, the destinations should consider the importance of gastronomy as a tool that contributes to a unique experience [21]. Babolian Hendijani [19] indicated that satisfaction that the tourist has with the local food depends on the cultural heritage of the cuisine and on the ingredients used being fresh and healthy.
Therefore, gastronomy as a primary or secondary motivation is considered an essential aspect of the traveler's satisfaction [16,6], bringing together the concepts of motivation, experience, and satisfaction.
In line with the literature review, the hypotheses to examine would be the following:
H5. Gastronomy is a factor that contributes and conditions the experience and, therefore, tourist satisfaction.
H6. The degree of satisfaction with the local gastronomy is conditioned by the culinary motivations of the tourist.
3. Methodology
3.1. Survey design
The methodology used in this research is based on conducting field work through a representative sample of foreign tourists who visited the city of Lima, with the aim of getting to know their opinion in relation to gastronomy. The surveys were conducted in different culinary establishments of the historic city center, on
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different days, and at different times to try to collect in this way the widest possible range of people and situations. Furthermore, the surveyed tourists had spent a certain amount of time in the city and, therefore, could give an informed opinions [22,23]. The survey used in this research was based on different prior articles [24,16].
As for its structure, the questionnaire was divided into three large blocks. The first block focused on the interest of those surveyed toward gastronomy, and the assessment of its importance when traveling. The second block focused on the motivations that contribute to a traveler's experience in relation to the local gastronomy and his/her level of satisfaction. Finally, the third block included sociodemographic characteristics of the visitors such as age, gender, economic level, place of origin, and level of education. The survey used questions with dichotomous-type (yes/no) answers, questions with open-ended answers and multiple choice, and questions where a Likert five-point scale (1 = not very important; 5 = very important) was used. Photograph 1—7.
3.2. Data collection
The surveys were conducted by a team of interviewers from the School of Business Science of Universidad Continental (Peru). The questionnaires were provided in two languages (Spanish and English).
A total of 572 surveys were obtained, of which 544 were valid, between the months of February and July 2016. A nonprobabilistic sampling technique was used, often utilized in this type of research where the interviewees are available to be surveyed in a certain place and time [25]. They were not stratified by gender, age, education, nationality, or by any other variable because of not having any prior studies available that would support this stratification.
3.3. Sampling and sampling error
The specific framework of this research is foreign visitors who visit the city of Lima. There are no official data on the number of foreign tourists who visit the city. The only information available is provided by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism (MIN-CETUR) [2] where it indicated that the number of foreign visitors who entered the country in the year 2013 was 3,890,298. Hence, the study data in this research are the data provided by MINCE-TUR. Therefore, starting from 3,890,298 foreign visitors, the
Photograph 2. Tacu-tacu de mariscos (seafood Tacu-Tacu), Tacu-Tacu has a creole origin, made traditionally with all the food that was to spare (its name comes from takuy, which means mix different things together). The original version of it is prepared with boiled rice and stewed vegetables. Among its most known recipes, the seafood Tacu-Tacu is the most remarkable; its ingredients are boiled beans, boiled rice, steamed or boiled seafood (shrimps, cuttlefish, prawns, octopus, etc.), red onions, large tomatoes, oregano, coriander, soy sauce, salt, and pepper.
Photograph 1. Lomo saltado, this delicious dish has indigenous European and Asian influences due to its way of being sauteed in the Chinese style. The original recipe includes ingredients such as beef, salt, cumin, pepper, green chillies, red or white vinegar, potatoes, oil, tomato, and parsley. Sometimes, some sillao or pisco are added to the mixture, pisco being one of the most emblematic Peruvian drinks.
Photograph 3. Seco de cabrito, the seco is an Arab origin stew, and it is known since colonial times, when it was called seco tajime. The main ingredient of this dish is baby goat's meat; it is served with beans, cooked with garlic and onions and also rice added to the side. Coriander is the main spice added to it. Chicha de jora (unsweetened), red onion, diced tomatoes, ground garlic, pumpkin, olive oil, pepper, and salt can be also added.
sampling error of this research, for a confidence interval of 95%, would be ±4.22%.
3.4. Data analysis
The tabulation and statistical analysis of the data was conducted using the SPSS, version 22, computer program. Statistics was used to assess the reliability and validity of the response to the applied questionnaire (Cronbach a). Next, the multivariate technique of grouping cases was applied (K-mean clusters) with the aim of analyzing the similarity existing between those surveyed, taking as a reference the variables indicated of greater or lesser interest in gastronomy as elements of interest when traveling. From the groups or segments obtained, statistics and measurements of association were applied, which provided information required to study the possible association patterns existing between variables starting with a table of two-dimensional contingencies. In a similar
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Photograph 4. Pulpo al olivo, this dish is one of the most popular dishes in the Nikkei cuisine (Japanese and Peruvian fusion cuisine). This dish, considered the king of Nikkei cuisine, has octopus as the main ingredient. It is cooked with the following ingredients: fresh onion, black olives, eggs, olive oil, lemon or lime juice, vinegar, salt, pepper, and celery. It is typical to serve the plate with lettuce and parsley, just for the presentation.
Photograph 5. Carapulcra, the carapulcra is an exquisite potage of Lima's cuisine. The dish is cooked with boiled potatoes stewed with chicken and pork, chillies, garlic, peanuts, and other spices. The carapulcra has an indigenous origin but with an influence of Spanish cuisine and also some slave-related culture to it, which adds some spices and ingredients unknown at first by locals or Spanish conquerors.
manner, statistical procedures were applied to carry out examinations of hypotheses on means starting with the post hoc univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) to verify which specific mean differed and, therefore, to control the rate of error.
4. Results
4.1. Segmentation of tourists according to their assessment of gastronomy
With the aim of analyzing and segmenting the interest in gastronomy of the surveyed tourists, they were asked to assess the importance of gastronomy on their trips, using three different questions, as indicated in the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16]. Based on the scores of these questions, the value of Cronbach a coefficient (0.737) constituted a reliable scale (F = 383.245 < 0.000) and a nonhierarchical cluster analysis. Under the criteria of maximizing the variance between types and minimizing the variance within each of them, the best solution that
Photograph 6. Ceviche de marisco, the ceviche is the most well-known dish of the country. The main ingredients of a typical Peruvian ceviche are the diced fresh fish, onion, and juice of Tamborgrande valley's lemon. For the marination, the chef chooses citrus relying on his own taste, but the most common are lemon and lime. As a result of the influence of Mediterranean cuisine, sour orange and onion are also added. Also coriander is added and yuca or camote comes normally as a side.
Photograph 7. Parihuela, The parihuela is a very popular soup in the coastal areas of Peru. Its ingredients are mainly seafood and fish, being their main source of nutrients. Among the fish and seafood, we can find white fish, shrimps, octopus, muscles, crabs, and abanico shells (scallops). It is also common to use seaweed and other vegetables or yuyos, which reinforce the coastal identity of the plate.
fulfills the criteria is that which establishes three clusters or segments. Table 1 shows the characterization of the clusters from the means of the three items that are intended to measure the importance of gastronomy when the surveyed tourists visit a certain destination.
We have called each of these segments, following the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16], survivors, en-joyers, and experiencers. According to Table 1, the first of the clusters is integrated by 28.7% of the surveyed foreign tourists, being the group that had significantly lower scores in all the items. This cluster is called survivors because of being a group of tourists that is characterized by low interest in gastronomy. The second group, which represents 47.2% of the sample, is characterized by having intermediate scores in the different items. This cluster, which groups the tourists with a moderate interest in gastronomy, is called enjoyers. The third group is characterized by having high scores in the three items and represents 24.1% of those surveyed. This cluster, which groups tourists with greater interest in gastronomy, is called experiencers. These results allow examining
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Table 1
Characterization clusters from gastronomy attitude.
Gastronomy attitude Food clusters ANOVA
Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance
How would you rate your knowledge on gastronomy? How would you rate your interest in gastronomy? How much has Lima's gastronomy influenced your visit to the city? 2.52* 1.55* 1.42* 2.86* 3.76* 3.06* 4.12* 4.23* 3.81* 157.374 600.805 394.692 <0.000 <0.000 <0.000
ANOVA, analysis of variance.
* The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the different means, the Games-Howell test was applied. Ql°
Source: Own elaboration.
one of the posed research hypotheses: tourists show different attitudes toward gastronomy as a variable of interest in their choice of destination (Hi).
4.2. Socioeconomic characteristics of the foreign tourists surveyed
Of the 544 people interviewed, 53.7% were men and the remaining 46.3% were women, with no significant differences existing in the data collection throughout different months. The surveyed visitors are, in general terms, young. Therefore, 75% of the sample were below the age of 40 years, thereby a positive association was detected between the age and the attitude toward gastronomy (gamma coefficient = 0.194; p = 0.003). The oldest tourists are more represented in the experiencer cluster of tourists (Snedecor's F test of ANOVA = 16.003; p = 0.000). This result allows examining the posed research hypothesis: the more favorable attitude toward the local gastronomy increases with the age of the tourist (H2).
The young tourists usually travel accompanied by their spouse and/or friends or colleagues, thereby an association is detected between the age and the company with whom they travel (contingency coefficient = 0.594; p = 0.000). The academic level of those surveyed is very high. The high number of university graduates should be highlighted; 92.6% of those surveyed state having a university or postgraduate degree. Similarly, differences are detected between gastronomic clusters. In this regard, the survivor cluster is characterized by a lower presence of tourists with postgraduate studies (Snedecor's F test of ANOVA = 17.444; p = 0.000). These results support the posed research hypothesis (H3) on the greater interest toward gastronomy by those travelers with higher academic training [11,26].
4.3. Motivations and gastronomy
After conducting a pretest, a dozen items were selected on a Likert five-point scale, with 1 being little and 5 being much, to
Table 2
Food motivational dimensions.
determine the relative importance of a series of motives in the decision to consume local food. The items were grouped into three different gastronomic dimensions: new food experiences, culture, and socialization.
Table 2 shows the different motivations that the survey respondents have for consuming local gastronomic products. Cronbach a coefficient of the final scale reached a value of0.854 and indicates high internal consistency. The results reveal that the reasons grouped in the new food experience category are the most relevant motivational dimension of the foreign tourists in relation to local gastronomy. Therefore, 41% of those interviewed considered "the taste of the dish is different from the one prepared in my region" as one of the principal reasons for tasting the local gastronomy. On the contrary, the dimension with the least relevance is socialization, with culture being in the intermediate position. The least powerful reasons for consuming local products are the following: "enjoy pleasant moments with family and/or friends" and "being able to convey my experiences with local food".
The gastronomic cluster analyses only allowed comparing significant differences in the motivational dimension of new food experiences (Table 3). The experiencer tourists are characterized by having the highest scores in each of the three motivational dimensions, being significantly higher with respect to the other clusters in the dimension new food experiences. The results make it clear that the culinary motivations of the tourists are heterogeneous and are conditioned by their attitude toward and/or interest in gastronomy on their trips (H4).
4.4. Gastronomy and satisfaction
The mean level of satisfaction declared on a Likert five-point scale is high (4.13 points), with a high percentage of tourists who declare being fully satisfied (40.7% of them indicated 5 points). The experiencer tourists are found with the greatest frequency (61.5%) in this group. Furthermore, referring to the scant importance of the not-at-all satisfied answers, only 2.8% of those surveyed showed a
Food motivational dimensions Mean Ranking
New food experiences Alpha de Cronbach (0.718), mean (4.06) The taste of the dish is different from the one prepared in my region 4.12 1
It excites me to taste local food in its place of origin 4.07 3
It is different from what I eat every day 4.06 4
An authentic experience 4.06 5
Discover something new 3.99 6
Culture Alpha de Cronbach (0.634), mean (3.95) Discover the taste of local food 4.09 2
Increase my knowledge about different cultures 3.89 7
It offers a unique opportunity to understand local culture 3.88 8
Socialization Alpha de Cronbach (0.796), mean (3.84) Give advice about gastronomical experiences to other travelers 3.87 9
Taste of local food increases family and friendship bonds 3.83 10
Being able to transmit my experiences with local food 3.83 11
Enjoy pleasant moments with family and/or friends 3.81 12
Source: Own elaboration.
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Table 3
ANOVA of motivation and demand of local food.
Food motivational dimensions Food clusters ANOVA Homogeneity variances Equality of means
Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance
New food experiences 3.90 4.04 4.24* 8.874 <.000 0.560 <.572 — —
Culture 3.95 3.90 4.03 0.969 <.380 17.465 <.001 0.916 <.401
Socialization 3.75 3.92 3.90 2.826 <.060 0.030 <.971 — —
ANOVA, analysis of variance.
* The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the different means, the Scheffe test was applied. Q11
Source: Own elaboration.
score less than or equal to 2. The results, therefore, present evidence of the positive influence of gastronomy on the experience and satisfaction of the tourist [21,6] (H5).
Having verified that the visitors leave very content with the cuisine of Lima, we went in depth in this aspect, analyzing what relationship could exist with the reasons or motivations for tasting the local gastronomy. Therefore, each of the three dimensions expressed above discriminated significantly in relation to the degree of perceived gastronomic satisfaction (Table 4). Despite not being very high, Spearman's rho corroborates the concordance between the degree of satisfaction and the three motivational dimensions. The data point out that a greater presence of reasons related to the new food experience and socialization dimensions contribute in greater measure to the perceived satisfaction in relation to the local gastronomy.
From the segmentations made, it is necessary to analyze the possible relations existing between each of the segments obtained with its level of satisfaction (Table 5). The analysis revealed a very positive valuation of the gastronomic experience obtained by the three segments of visitors, being significantly distinct as it is more or less related to the reasons that motivate the consumption of local products. The valuation is greater in the experiencer tourists and presents evidence of how the higher relevance of the three motivational dimensions is translated into higher levels of gastronomic satisfaction.
This fact has a clear management implication for tourist companies and the public sector of the city because the initiatives aimed at incrementing the gastronomic satisfaction of visitors should start with an analysis of the reasons that motivate their
Table 4
ANOVA of food satisfaction and motivational dimensions.
consumption and influence the presence and correct the provision of the tourist product. And, in this respect, one of the principal contributions of this study is the verification that local gastronomy is a tool that conditions the tourist experience (H6).
5. Discussion
The segmentation of tourists in the tourist destinations using gastronomy as a basic element is analyzed in different prior research articles [11,13,27,16]. From all these research articles and in this article, it is concluded that tourists show different attitudes toward gastronomy as a variable of interest in the choice of destination. Furthermore, different studies conclude that in the segmentation of the tourists, one of the groups is very interested in gastronomy, whereas another group has very little interest. Therefore, with respect to what in this research are called experiences, following the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16], Hjalager [3] calls them experimental gastronomy tourists and McKercher et al [13] calls them definite culinary tourists. The opposite occurs with the group called survivors in this research; therefore, Hjalager [3] characterizes one of the groups as recreational, McKercher et al [13] as nonculinary tourists, and Thompson and Prideaux [27] as a group not interested in gastronomy.
In relation to the sociodemographic profile of the tourists, there are two principal results obtained in this research: first, the older the tourist, the greater his interest in gastronomy; second, the tourists with a higher educational level show greater interest in gastronomy. In this regard, this type of tourists would be
Motivational dimensions ANOVA Homogeneity variances Equality of means Spearman's rho
F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance
New food experiences Culture Socialization 17.139 <.000 5.482 <.000 23.926 <.000 19.626 11.226 7.330 <.000 28.238 <.000 8.336 <.000 37.901 <.000 <.000 <.000 0.24* 0.17* 0.35*
ANOVA, analysis of variance. * The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral). Source: Own elaboration.
Table 5 Characterization cluster from the variable food satisfaction.
Food clusters ANOVA Homogeneity variances
Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers F Significance Levene Significance Welch Significance
3.94 4.16 4.38* 11.020 <.000 8.716 <.000 12.420 <.000
ANOVA, analysis of variance.
* The values in bold type present significant differences in two of three means clusters in the post hoc ANOVA. To be able to test for the significant differences between the different means, the Games-Howell test was applied. Ql3
Source: Own elaboration.
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predominant in the segment that was called experiencers. These results are supported by prior research [28,26] where the importance of age is shown with respect to the interest of the tourist in local food. Tse and Crotts [28] indicate age as one of the axes for the segmentation of the tourists and their relationship with gastronomy. Mgonja et al [7] show that visitors aged older than 50 years are the most interested in local food. On the other hand, the result showing that the tourists more interested in gastronomy are those with a higher level of education is also reinforced by prior research, such as that conducted by Kivela and Crotts [11], Mgonja et al [7], and Perez-Gelvez et al [26].
The results of this research make it clear that the culinary motivations of the tourists are heterogeneous and are conditioned by their attitude and/or interest toward gastronomy on their trips. Therefore, these motivations have been grouped into three different gastronomic dimensions: new food experiences, culture, and socialization. Prior literature assessed the motivations regarding gastronomy of the destination through different dimensions [24,29,30,16]. Anderson et al [10] analyzed these motivations through different experiences that could be obtained: sensory, cultural, and social. Meanwhile, Baldoni Hendijani [19] indicated the following factors as the most outstanding: heritage, serving, food environment, variety, availability, sensory, and ingredients.
This research corroborates the results of the prior literature [16,6] because the local gastronomy contributes to increase the
Q6 degree of satisfaction of the tourists and his/her experience. In this regard, Haven-Tang and Jones [21] indicated that the tourist destinations should consider the importance of gastronomy as a tool that contributes to a unique experience. In turn, Babolian Hendijani [19] indicated the importance that gastronomy has in the tourists' satisfaction based on the cultural heritage of that place. In fact, for this reason, it is essential that research is conducted to bring together the concepts of tourism, heritage, and gastronomy in destinations that were registered as World Heritage Sites, as in the
Q7 case of the city of Lima. Crespi-Vallborna and Dimitrouski [15] indicated the importance that taste has in the visitor's satisfaction.
6. Conclusions
Q8 Gastronomic tourism is perceived nowadays as one of the significant commitments for strengthening or consolidating certain tourist destinations, due to the importance, increasingly greater, that the knowledge of everything related to gastronomic culture has for the travelers. In fact, there are already certain travelers who consider going to a specific restaurant or simply getting to know the cuisine of a specific geographic area better as the primary motivation for their trip.
In this article, an analysis has been conducted on the opinion of the foreign tourists who visited the city of Lima with regard to gastronomy. The local gastronomy plays a direct role as a tourist attraction, being a relevant objective when visiting a tourist destination. In this regard, this research concludes that the foreign tourists show different attitudes toward the local gastronomy as a variable of tourist development. According to the interest declared toward gastronomy on their trips, empiric evidence is obtained on the presence of three types of tourists, whom we have called, following the model developed by Bjork and Kauppinen-Raisanen [16], survivors, enjoyers, and experiencers.
The greater or lesser interest in gastronomy also conditions the culinary motivations and the perception of satisfaction that the tourist experiences. Considering the culinary motivations of the tourist, empirical evidence is obtained on the presence of three motivational dimensions, which we have called new food experience, culture, and socialization. One of the principal contributions of this research is to verify that the degree of satisfaction toward the
local gastronomy is conditioned by culinary motivations. The results show that the new food experience and socialization dimensions contribute to a greater extent to gastronomic satisfaction. The visitors indicated high satisfaction with their culinary experience, with the significant valuation being different according to the interest declared toward gastronomy.
The principle aim of this article is to show the results of research carried out on the relationship between gastronomy and tourism in a World Heritage Sites in Latin America. In this respect, this research contributes to reinforce the studies conducted on the relationship between tourism and gastronomy in different places of the world, although mostly in Asia and Europe. In fact, this article includes one of the first studies conducted on this subject in Latin America.
The study provides not only theoretical implications but also practical ones. The main practical application of this research is to contribute to understanding the characteristics of the different groups of foreign tourists identified and the valuation that they give about the local gastronomy with the aim of conceiving tourist and cultural products that better satisfy their needs and, at the same time, are compatible with the sustainable management of the local gastronomy. In this regard, with the aim of the local gastronomy becoming another tool of tourist competition, it becomes necessary to establish measures that favor financing for the improvement and modernization of the culinary establishments of the city of Lima.
The main limitation of this research is the time period in which it was conducted. We consider that it would be advisable to extend the research to tourism in the city during all the months of the year. As a future line of research, we recommend reinforcing the research that studies the importance of gastronomy from the point of view of the author.
Conflicts of interest
All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. References
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