CC BY-NC-ND
0Accepted Manuscript
Myocardial Edema After Ischemia/Reperfusion Is Not Stable and Follows a Bimodal Pattern: Advanced Imaging and Histological Tissue Characterization
Rodrigo Fernández-Jiménez , MD, Javier Sánchez-González , PhD, Jaume Aguero , MD, Jaime García-Prieto , BSc, Gonzalo J. López-Martín , Tech, José M. García-Ruiz , MD, Antonio Molina-Iracheta , DVM, Xavier Rosselló , MD, Leticia Fernández-Friera , MD PhD, Gonzalo Pizarro , MD, Ana García-Álvarez , MD PhD, BSc, Erica Dall'Armellina , MD D.Phil., Carlos Macaya , MD PhD, Robin P. Choudhury , DM, Valentin Fuster , MD PhD, Borja Ibanez , MD PhD
PII: S0735-1097(14)06911-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.11.004
Reference: JAC 20733
To appear in: Journal of the American College of Cardiology
Received Date: 19 October 2014 Revised Date: 5 November 2014 Accepted Date: 6 November 2014
Please cite this article as: Fernández-Jiménez R, Sánchez-González J, Aguero J, García-Prieto J, López-Martín GJ, García-Ruiz JM, Molina-Iracheta A, Rosselló X, Fernández-Friera L, Pizarro G, García-Álvarez A, Dall'Armellina E, Macaya C, Choudhury RP, Fuster V, Ibanez B, Myocardial Edema After Ischemia/Reperfusion Is Not Stable and Follows a Bimodal Pattern: Advanced Imaging and Histological Tissue Characterization, Journal of the American College of Cardiology (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.11.004.
This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Myocardial Edema After Ischemia/Reperfusion Is Not Stable and Follows a Bimodal Pattern: Advanced Imaging and Histological Tissue Characterization
Running title: Bimodal Edema After I/R
12 13 1
Rodrigo Fernández-Jiménez , , MD; Javier Sánchez-González , , PhD; Jaume Aguero , MD; Jaime García-Prieto1, BSc; Gonzalo J López-Martín1, Tech; José M García-Ruiz1, MD; Antonio Molina-Iracheta1, DVM; Xavier Rosselló1, MD; Leticia Fernández-Friera1,4, MD PhD; Gonzalo Pizarro5, MD; Ana García-Álvarez1, MD PhD; BSc; Erica Dall'Armellina6, MD D.Phil.; Carlos Macaya2, MD PhD; Robin P. Choudhury6, DM; Valentin Fuster1,7, MD PhD; Borja Ibanez1,2, MD PhD*
Author Affiliations: 1Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Spain; 2Hospital Universitario Clínico San Carlos, Spain; 3Philips Healthcare, Spain; 4Hospital Universitario Montepríncipe, Spain; 5Hospital Universitario Quirón UEM, Spain; 6Oxford Acute Vascular Imaging Centre, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; 7The Zena and Michael A. Wiener CVI, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
*Corresponding author: Borja Ibanez, MD PhD FESC
Atherothrombosis, Imaging, and Epidemiology Department,
Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC)
Melchor Fernández Almagro, 3. 28029
Madrid, Spain
Phone: (+34) 91 453.12.00
Fax: (+34) 91 453 12 45
E-mail: bibanez@cnic.es
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: We are indebted to contributions by Maria Del Trigo, Carlos Galán-Arriola and David Sanz-Rosa. We thank Tamara Córdoba, Oscar Sanz, Eugenio Fernández and other members of the CNIC animal facility and farm for outstanding animal care and support. Simon Bartlett (CNIC) provided English editing.
FUNDING SOURCES: This work was supported by a competitive grant from the Carlos III Institute of Health-Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria (PI13/01979), and partially by the FP7-PEOPLE-2013-ITN Next generation training in cardiovascular research and innovation-Cardionext. Rodrigo Fernández-Jiménez is recipient of a Rio Hortega fellowship from the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness through the Instituto de Salud Carlos III; and a FICNIC fellowship from the Fundació Jesús Serra, the Fundación Interhospitalaria de Investigación Cardiovascular (FIC) and the Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC). Jaume Aguero is a FP7-PEOPLE-2013 -ITN-Cardionext fellow. This study forms part of a Master Research Agreement (MRA) between CNIC and Philips healthcare. B.I is supported by the Red de Investigación Cardiovascular (RIC) of the Spanish Ministry of Health supports (RD 12/0042/0054). The CNIC is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the Pro-CNIC Foundation.
DISCLOSURES: None.
ABSTRACT
Background. It is widely accepted that after myocardial ischemia/reperfusion edema occurs early in the ischemic zone and persists in stable form for at least 1 week. However, there are no longitudinal studies covering from very early (minutes) to late (one week) reperfusion stages confirming this phenomenon.
Objectives. To perform a comprehensive longitudinal imaging and histological tissue characterization of the edematous reaction after experimental myocardial ischemia/reperfusion. Methods. The study population consisted of 25 instrumented Large-White pigs (30-40 Kg). Closed-chest 40min ischemia/reperfusion was performed in 20 pigs, which were sacrificed at 120 minutes (n=5), 24 hours (n=5), 4 days (n=5) and 7 days (n=5) after reperfusion and processed for histological quantification of myocardial water content. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) scans with T2W-STIR and T2-mapping sequences were performed at every follow-up stage until sacrifice. Five additional pigs sacrificed after baseline CMR served as controls.
Results. In all pigs, reperfusion was associated with a significant increase in T2 relaxation times in the ischemic region. On 24-hour CMR, ischemic myocardium T2 times returned to normal values (similar to those seen pre-infarction). Thereafter, there was a progressive systematic increase in ischemic myocardium-T2 times in CMR performed on days 4 and 7 after reperfusion. On day7-CMR T2 relaxation times were as high as those observed at reperfusion. Myocardial water content analysis in the ischemic region showed a parallel bimodal pattern: two high water content peaks at reperfusion and day 7, with a significant decrease at 24 hours. Conclusions. Contrary to the accepted view, myocardial edema during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion follows a bimodal pattern. The initial wave appears abruptly upon
reperfusion and dissipates at 24 hours. Conversely, the deferred wave of edema, appears progressively days after ischemia/reperfusion and is maximal around day 7 after reperfusion. Key words: Myocardial infarction, ischemia/reperfusion, edema, water content, MRI, CMR, T2, Pig.
ABBREVIATIONS LIST:
CMR = Cardiac Magnetic Resonance
I/R = Ischemia/reperfusion
STIR = short-tau inversion recovery
T2W = T2 weighted
FOV: Field of view
TR: Repetition time
TE: Echo time
NEX: Number of excitations
ROI: Region of interest
Introduction
Tissue characterization after myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is of great scientific and clinical value. After myocardial I/R there is an intense edematous reaction (due to abnormal fluid accumulation in the interstitial and/or cardiomyocyte compartments) in the post-ischemic myocardium (1-5). Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is a noninvasive technique that allows accurate tissue characterization of the myocardium (6). T2-weighted (T2W) and T2-mapping CMR sequences in particular have the potential to identify tissues with high water content (7). Few experimental studies have correlated post-I/R T2-CMR data with myocardial water content (2, 8), and these validations were moreover undertaken at different times after reperfusion. On the assumptions that myocardial edema appears early after I/R and persists in stable form for at least 1 week (9, 10), and that this edema is accurately visualized by CMR, many recent experimental and clinical studies have used these CMR sequences to retrospectively evaluate post-myocardial infarction edema. However, the time chosen for the CMR exam varies significantly among studies, from 1 day (9, 10) up to several weeks (9-16) after reperfusion. In addition, post-I/R T2W signal intensity and T2 relaxation time are affected by other factors besides water content: T2-CMR results can be modulated independently by hemorrhage (17, 18), microvascular obstruction (19), and even cardioprotective therapies (20-22). There is therefore intense debate about the accuracy of CMR-based methods for detecting, quantifying and tracking the post-infarction edematous reaction (7, 23). Given the growing use of CMR-technology to quantify post-I/R edema in clinical trials (24, 25), there is a need for a comprehensive characterization of the time course of post-I/R myocardial edema, including evaluation of both CMR and histological reference standards (22-24, 26-28).
The present study aimed to comprehensively characterize myocardial edema and reperfusion-related tissue changes after I/R, covering from early to late reperfusion stages. For this, we performed a full CMR and histopathological study in a large animal (pig) model of I/R. Methods
Study design
Experiments were performed in castrated male Large-White pigs weighing 30 to 40 kg. A total of 25 pigs completed the full protocol and comprised the study population. The study was approved by the Institutional Animal Research Committee and conducted in accordance with recommendations of the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The study design is summarized in Figure 1. Five pigs (Group 1) were sacrificed with no intervention other than baseline CMR, and served as controls. In 20 pigs, reperfused acute myocardial infarction (I/R) was induced experimentally by closed-chest 40-minute left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion. These pigs were sacrificed at 120 minutes (n=5, Group 2), 24 hours (n=5, Group 3), 4 days (n=5, Group 4) and 7 days (n=5, Group 5) after reperfusion. CMR scans, including T2W-STIR,T2-mapping and delayed enhancement sequences, were performed at every follow-up stage until sacrifice (i.e. animals sacrificed on day 7 underwent baseline, 120min, 24h, day4 and day7 CMR exams). Animals were immediately euthanized after the last follow-up CMR scan, and myocardial tissue samples from ischemic and remote areas were rapidly collected for evaluation of water content by histology. Myocardial infarction procedure
The I/R protocol has been detailed elsewhere (29). Anesthesia was induced by intramuscular injection of ketamine (20 mg/kg), xylazine (2 mg/kg), and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg), and maintained by continuous intravenous infusion of ketamine (2 mg/kg/h), xylazine (0.2
mg/kg/h) and midazolam (0.2 mg/kg/h). Animals were intubated and mechanically ventilated with oxygen (fraction of inspired O2: 28%). Central venous and arterial lines were inserted and a single bolus of unfractioned heparin (300 mg/kg) was administered at the onset of instrumentation. The left anterior descending coronary artery, immediately distal to the origin of the first diagonal branch, was occluded for 40 minutes with an angioplasty balloon introduced via the percutaneous femoral route using the Seldinger technique. Balloon location and maintenance of inflation were monitored angiographically. After balloon deflation, a coronary angiogram was recorded to confirm patency of the coronary artery. A continuous infusion of amiodarone (300 mg/h) was maintained during the procedure in all pigs to prevent malignant ventricular arrhythmias. In cases of ventricular fibrillation, a biphasic defibrillator was used to deliver non-synchronized shocks. CMR protocol
Baseline CMR scan was performed immediately before myocardial infarction and subsequently repeated at corresponding post-infarction follow-up time points until sacrifice. All studies were performed in a Philips 3-Tesla Achieva Tx whole body scanner (Philips Healthcare, Best, the Netherlands) equipped with a 32-element phased-array cardiac coil. The imaging protocol included a standard segmented cine steady-state free-precession (SSFP) sequence to provide high quality anatomical references, a T2-weighted triple inversion-recovery (T2W-STIR) sequence, a T2- turbo spin echo mapping (T2-TSE map), and a late gadolinium enhancement sequence. The imaging parameters for the SSFP sequence were FOV of 280 x 280 mm, slice thickness of 6 mm with no gap, TR 2.8 ms, TE 1.4 ms, flip angle 45°, cardiac phases 30, voxel size 1.8 x 1.8 mm, and 3 NEX. The imaging parameters for the T2W-STIR sequence were FOV 280 x 280, slice thickness 6 mm, TR 2 heartbeats, TE 80 ms, voxel size 1.4 x 1.95
mm, delay 210 ms, end-diastolic acquisition, echo-train length 16, and 2 NEX. The imaging parameters for the T2-TSE mapping were FOV 300x300, slice thickness 8 mm, TR 2 heartbeats, and ten echo times ranging from 4.9 to 49ms. Delayed enhancement imaging was performed 1015 minutes after intravenous administration of 0.20 mmol of gadopentate dimeglumine contrast agent per kg of body weight (30) using an inversion-recovery spoiled turbo field echo (IR-TFE) sequence with the following parameters: FOV of 280 x 280 mm, voxel size 1.6 x 1.6 mm, end-diastolic acquisition, thickness of 6 mm with no gap, TR 5.6 ms, TE 2.8 ms, inversion delay time optimized to null normal myocardium, and 2 NEX. SSFP, T2W-STIR and IR-FGE sequences were performed to acquire 13-15 contiguous short axis slices covering the heart from the base to the apex, whereas T2-maps were acquired in a mid-apical ventricular short axis slice corresponding to the same anatomical level in all studies, in order to track T2 relaxation time changes across time. CMR data analysis
CMR images were analyzed using dedicated software (MR Extended Work Space 2.6, Philips Healthcare, The Netherlands; and QMass MR 7.5, Medis, The Netherlands) by two observers experienced in CMR analysis. T2-maps were automatically generated on the acquisition scanner by fitting the SI of all echo times to a monoexponential decay curve at each pixel with a maximum likelihood expectation maximization algorithm. T2 relaxation maps were quantitatively analyzed by placing a wide transmural region of interest (ROI) at the ischemic and remote areas of the corresponding slice in all studies. Hypointense areas suggestive of microvascular obstruction or hemorrhage were included in the ROI for T2 quantification purposes. Delayed gadolinium enhanced regions were defined as >50% of maximum myocardial signal intensity (full width half maximum) with manual adjustment when needed. If present, a
central core of hypointense signal within the area of increased signal was included as late gadolinium enhanced myocardium. Regional transmuralilty of contrast enhancement was evaluated in the same segments where ROIs for T2 quantification were placed with a scheme based on the spatial extent of delayed enhancement tissue within each segment (31). Segments with more than 75% hyperenhancement were considered segments with transmural enhancement.
Quantification of myocardial water content by histology
Paired myocardial samples were collected within minutes of euthanasia from the infarcted and remote myocardium of all pigs. Tissue samples were immediately blotted to remove surface moisture and introduced into laboratory crystal containers previously weighed on a high-precision scale. The containers were weighed before and after drying for 48 hours at 100°C in a desiccating oven. Tissue water content was calculated as follows: water content (%) = [(wet weight-dry weight)/wet weight] x100. An empty container was weighed before and after desiccation as an additional calibration control. Statistical analysis
Normal distribution of each data sub-set was checked using graphical methods and a Shapiro-Wilk test. For quantitative variables showing a normal distribution, data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Leven's test was performed to check homogeneity of variances. A one-way ANOVA was conducted for comparison of myocardial water content among groups (from animal sacrificed at different time-points). In order to take into account repeated measures, a generalized mixed model was conducted for comparison of T2 relaxation times among different time-points. As the nature of this study was exploratory, all pairwise comparisons were explored, adjusting p-value for multiple comparisons using Holm-Bonferroni method. Data from
the ischemic and remote myocardium, i.e. myocardial water content and T2 relaxation time values, were separately analyzed in all cases. All statistical analyses were performed using commercially available software (Stata 12.0). Results
Natural evolution of myocardial edema during the first week after I/R
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging
Baseline (i.e. before ischemia) mean T2 relaxation times were 47.2±2.6 ms and 46.3±1.7 ms for the mid-apical anteroseptal and posterolateral left ventricular walls, respectively. Early reperfusion (120-min CMR) was associated in all pigs with a sharp and significant increase in T2 relaxation time above baseline, in the former ischemic area (mid-apical anteroseptal ventricular wall). T2 relaxation times returned to baseline values at 24 hours post-I/R in all animals, but subsequently increased progressively, reaching post-I/R similar values on day 7 similar to those observed during early reperfusion. A linear trend for a progressive increase, albeit slight, in T2 relaxation times across different time-points was observed in the remote myocardium. Figure 2A shows mean changes in T2 relaxation time in the ischemic myocardium as well as a representative example of one animal serially scanned at all time-points. Measurements of T2 relaxation time in the ischemic and remote myocardium at different time-points after I/R are summarized in Table 1. Changes observed in T2W-STIR and T2-TSE mapping were consistent in all animals, as shown in Figure 3, which shows images of eight pigs scanned at the different time-points. The transmural extent of infarction was >80% in all evaluated segments containing the ROIs for T2 relaxation time quantification. Myocardial water content
Myocardial water content in non-infarcted myocardium (from animals in Group 1) was 79.4±0.6 % and 79.4±0.7 % for the mid-apical anteroseptal and posterolateral left ventricular walls, respectively. In the ischemic myocardium, an abrupt increase in water content was detected at early reperfusion. Matching the CMR data, there was a systematic and significant decrease in tissue water content in the formerly ischemic region at 24 hours, followed by an increase over the subsequent days to reach values on day 7 similar to those observed at early reperfusion. A linear trend for a progressive increase, albeit slight, in water content across different time-points was observed in the remote myocardium. The time course for absolute differences in water content between ischemic and remote myocardium are shown in Figure 2B. Measurements of water content in the ischemic and remote myocardium at different time-points after I/R are summarized in Table 2. Discussion
The present experimental study challenges the accepted view of the development of post-ischemia/reperfusion myocardial edema. Through state-of-the-art CMR analysis and histological validation in a pig model of I/R, we show that the edematous reaction during the first week after reperfusion is not stable, and instead follows a bimodal pattern (Figure 4, central illustration). The first wave appears abruptly upon reperfusion and dissipates at 24 hours. Conversely, the second wave of edema appears progressively days after I/R and increases to a maximum on post-reperfusion day 7.To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to comprehensively characterize the time course of myocardial edema during the first week after I/R, covering from very early to late reperfusion stages. Because edema has been perceived to be (a) stable and (b) persistent during at least one week after myocardial ischemia/reperfusion, it has been used increasingly both clinically and in the setting of clinical trials as a marker of ischemic 'memory'.
Therefore, our findings that neither of these assumptions is accurate will have important translational implications.
As with most organs, water is a major component of healthy cardiac tissue. In steady-state conditions, myocardial water content is stable and mostly intracellular, with only a very small interstitial component contained within the extracellular matrix. Cardiac edema occurs in numerous pathological conditions in which this homeostasis is disrupted, and affects both fluid accumulation outside cells (interstitial edema) and within cardiomyocytes (cellular edema). In the context of myocardial infarction, edema appears initially in the form of cardiomyocyte swelling during the early stages of ischemia (5). Myocardial edema is then significantly exacerbated upon restoration of blood flow to the ischemic region. This increase is due to increased cell swelling (3) and, more importantly, to interstitial edema secondary to reactive hyperemia and leakage from damaged capillaries when the hydrostatic pressure is restored upon reperfusion (1,4).
CMR has emerged as a noninvasive technology that allows characterization cardiac tissue after I/R (6), with T2-weighted (T2W) CMR sequences especially suited to detecting high water content in post-ischemic edematous cardiac muscle (7). Under the accepted dogma that myocardial edema appears early after I/R and is present at least 1 week (9, 10, 24), numerous experimental and clinical studies have used T2W-CMR to retrospectively evaluate the edematous reaction associated with myocardial infarction. Although visually attractive, T2W imaging is subject to several technical limitations and does not offer quantitative T2 measurements that would allow comparisons between different studies (32, 33). Recently developed quantitative T2 relaxation maps (T2-mapping) have been proposed to overcome at least some of the limitations for the detection and quantification of myocardial edema (34, 35).
However, T2-mapping sequences have their own inherent limitations, are time-consuming and thus mostly used as a research tool, and require further validation. Large animal models of I/R offer an ideal platform for such a validation (36), and the pig is one of the most reliable models for studying I/R-related processes due to its anatomical and physiological similarities to the human heart.
An important source of confusion in CMR-evaluation of post-I/R edema is the disparate time-points examined in different experimental and clinical studies. As demonstrated in the present study, the timing of post-infarction imaging is of critical importance for the noninvasive assessment of myocardial edema, since T2 values in the ischemic myocardium fluctuate significantly during the first week after reperfusion. In a previous study, Foltz et al (37, 38) suggested a similar time course of myocardial T2 relaxation time in a pig model of I/R, with CMR scans at days 0, 2 and 7 after reperfusion. However, this study lacked histological validation of myocardial water content, and fluctuating T2 values observed were interpreted as reflecting the oxidative denaturation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin (17, 39) rather than fluctuations in myocardial water content. The histological validation in the present study demonstrates the consistent appearance of two consecutive waves of edema during the first week after I/R, a breaking concept in the field.
The first wave of edema appears early after reperfusion and dissipates at 24 hours. Interestingly, water content within the ischemic myocardium did not return to normal values, whereas T2 relaxation time in the ischemic ventricular wall dropped to the values in the baseline scan. It is plausible that the decrease in T2 relaxation time observed at 24 hours is due to at least two components: the classically described paramagnetic effect of hemoglobin denaturation
products and the sharp decrease in myocardial water content at 24 hours post-reperfusion reported here.
The second wave of edema appeared progressively in the days after the I/R and was maximal at day 7. Interestingly, T2 abnormalities and increased water content in the ischemic region were ultimately as impressive as the observations at early reperfusion. Further studies are needed to elucidate the physiopathology underlying this bimodal edematous reaction after I/R. It is intuitive to argue that the first and second waves of post-I/R edema are related to different pathological phenomena, although this has not been demonstrated in the present work. While the first wave seems to be directly related to reperfusion, the deciphering of the pathophysiology underlying the second wave is more challenging. Tissue changes happening during the first week of infarction (cardiomyocyte debris removal and its replacement by water in the extracellular compartment, collagen homeostasis, and healing of the tissue/inflammation among others) could play a role in this second edematous reaction, although this is speculative at this stage.
The data here presented might have implications into the understanding of the role of CMR to retrospectively quantify post-infarction area at risk. The aim of the present work was the qualitatively (and not quantitative) exploration of the edematous reaction following I/R. Given that this work was not designed to correlate the actual anatomical area at risk (perfusion defect during ischemia) with the extension of CMR-visualized edema, any conclusion on this regard will be speculative at this moment and will distract from the main objective of this study. Future studies should specifically evaluate the impact of the dual edema phenomenon on the role of CMR to accurately quantify area at risk.
The identification of the time course of post-I/R myocardial edema has important biological, diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic implications, and opens a route to further exploration of factors influencing this phenomenon.
Limitations
Extrapolation of the results of this experimental study to the clinic should be done with caution. The intensity and time course of bimodal post-I/R edema may be modified by several factors, such as the duration of ischemia, pre-existence of collateral flow, and even the application of peri-reperfusion therapies to attenuate I/R damage. Nonetheless, the use of a large animal model is of great translational value, especially considering the difficulty of performing such a comprehensive serial CMR study (including one exam immediately upon reperfusion) in patients. The data presented in this study are robust and consistent, and the pig is one of the most clinically translatable large animal models for the study of I/R issues, since, unlike other mammals, it has a similar coronary artery anatomy and distribution to humans (40), and also a minimal pre-existing coronary collateral flow (41). In addition, experimental studies offer the possibility of histological validation, as shown here with the direct quantification of myocardial water content.
In this study the ROIs for T2 relaxation time quantification were placed in the entire wall thickness and were individually adjusted by hand to carefully avoid the right and left ventricular cavities. Therefore, ROIs might include different myocardial states (i.e. hemorrhage, microvascular obstruction). We decided to take this approach to mimic the histological water content evaluation, which was performed in the entire wall thickness. Given the parallel course of T2 relaxation times and water content, we believe that the possibility of including different myocardial states had little effect on the results reported, although it might have some influence
in the differences in absolute T2 relaxation times between our study and others taking a different
methodological approach for the ROIs selection.
Conclusions
Contrary to the accepted view, the present work consistently shows that edematous reaction during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion is not stable and follows a bimodal pattern. The first wave of edema appears abruptly upon reperfusion and dissipates at 24 hours. Conversely, the second wave appears progressively days after ischemia/reperfusion and is maximal around day 7 after reperfusion.
COMPETENCY IN MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE
The edematous reaction after myocardial infarction is a widely acknowledged phenomenon. This study challenges the current paradigm that this edema reaction is stable during the first week after infarction. We show instead that the edematous reaction is bimodal. The identification of this dual-wave edema phenomenon after ischemia/reperfusion has important biological, diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic implications.
TRANSLATIONAL OUTLOOK 1
The possibility of noninvasively quantifying two potentially independent processes associated with ischemia/reperfusion opens the way for studying the effect of therapeutic interventions modulating these processes.
TRANSLATIONAL OUTLOOK 2
Understanding the systematic variations in the post-ischemia/reperfusion edema reaction highlights the need for a consistent and evidence-based timing of CMR scans for the quantification of post-infarction jeopardized myocardium.
REFERENCES
1. Bragadeesh T, Jayaweera AR, Pascotto M, et al. Post-ischaemic myocardial dysfunction (stunning)
results from myofibrillar oedema. Heart. 2008; 94: 166-171.
2. Garcia-Dorado D, Oliveras J, Gili J, et al. Analysis of myocardial oedema by magnetic resonance
imaging early after coronary artery occlusion with or without reperfusion. Cardiovasc Res. 1993; 27: 1462-1469.
3. Kloner RA, Ganote CE, Whalen DA, Jr., Jennings RB. Effect of a transient period of ischemia on
myocardial cells. Ii. Fine structure during the first few minutes of reflow. The American journal of pathology. 1974; 74: 399-422.
4. Turschner O, D'Hooge J, Dommke C, et al. The sequential changes in myocardial thickness and
thickening which occur during acute transmural infarction, infarct reperfusion and the resultant expression of reperfusion injury. Eur. Heart J. 2004; 25: 794-803.
5. Whalen DA, Jr., Hamilton DG, Ganote CE, Jennings RB. Effect of a transient period of ischemia on
myocardial cells. I. Effects on cell volume regulation. The American journal of pathology. 1974; 74: 381-397.
6. Friedrich MG. Tissue characterization of acute myocardial infarction and myocarditis by cardiac
magnetic resonance. JACC. Cardiovascular imaging. 2008; 1: 652-662.
7. Arai AE, Leung S, Kellman P. Controversies in cardiovascular mr imaging: Reasons why imaging
myocardial t2 has clinical and pathophysiologic value in acute myocardial infarction. Radiology. 2012; 265: 23-32.
8. Wisenberg G, Prato FS, Carroll SE, Turner KL, Marshall T. Serial nuclear magnetic resonance
imaging of acute myocardial infarction with and without reperfusion. Am. Heart J. 1988; 115: 510-518.
9. Carlsson M, Ubachs JF, Hedstrom E, et al. Myocardium at risk after acute infarction in humans on
cardiac magnetic resonance: Quantitative assessment during follow-up and validation with single-photon emission computed tomography. JACC. Cardiovascular imaging. 2009; 2: 569576.
10. Dall'Armellina E, Karia N, Lindsay AC, et al. Dynamic changes of edema and late gadolinium
enhancement after acute myocardial infarction and their relationship to functional recovery and salvage index. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011; 4: 228-236.
11. Aletras AH, Tilak GS, Natanzon A, et al. Retrospective determination of the area at risk for
reperfused acute myocardial infarction with t2-weighted cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: Histopathological and displacement encoding with stimulated echoes (dense) functional validations. Circulation. 2006; 113: 1865-1870.
12. Berry C, Kellman P, Mancini C, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging delineates the ischemic area at
risk and myocardial salvage in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010; 3: 527-535.
13. Friedrich MG, Abdel-Aty H, Taylor A, et al. The salvaged area at risk in reperfused acute
myocardial infarction as visualized by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008; 51: 1581-1587.
14. Ibanez B, Macaya C, Sanchez-Brunete V, et al. Effect of early metoprolol on infarct size in st-
segment-elevation myocardial infarction patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention: The effect of metoprolol in cardioprotection during an acute myocardial infarction (metocard-cnic) trial. Circulation. 2013; 128: 1495-1503.
15. Thiele H, Hildebrand L, Schirdewahn C, et al. Impact of high-dose n-acetylcysteine versus placebo
on contrast-induced nephropathy and myocardial reperfusion injury in unselected patients with
st-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention. The lipsia-n-acc (prospective, single-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized leipzig immediate percutaneous coronary intervention acute myocardial infarction n-acc) trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55: 2201-2209.
16. Wright J, Adriaenssens T, Dymarkowski S, Desmet W, Bogaert J. Quantification of myocardial area
at risk with t2-weighted cmr: Comparison with contrast-enhanced cmr and coronary angiography. JACC. Cardiovascular imaging. 2009; 2: 825-831.
17. Lotan CS, Miller SK, Cranney GB, Pohost GM, Elgavish GA. The effect of postinfarction
intramyocardial hemorrhage on transverse relaxation time. Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 1992; 23: 346-355.
18. O'Regan DP, Ahmed R, Karunanithy N, et al. Reperfusion hemorrhage following acute myocardial
infarction: Assessment with t2* mapping and effect on measuring the area at risk. Radiology. 2009; 250: 916-922.
19. Mikami Y, Sakuma H, Nagata M, et al. Relation between signal intensity on t2-weighted mr images
and presence of microvascular obstruction in patients with acute myocardial infarction. AJR. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2009; 193: W321-326.
20. Hausenloy DJ, Baxter G, Bell R, et al. Translating novel strategies for cardioprotection: The hatter
workshop recommendations. Basic Res. Cardiol. 2010; 105: 677-686.
21. Thuny F, Lairez O, Roubille F, et al. Post-conditioning reduces infarct size and edema in patients
with st-segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 59: 2175-2181.
22. White SK, Frohlich GM, Sado DM, et al. Remote ischemic conditioning reduces myocardial infarct
size and edema in patients with st-segment elevation myocardial infarction. JACC. Cardiovascular interventions. 2014 (ahead of print).
23. Croisille P, Kim HW, Kim RJ. Controversies in cardiovascular mr imaging: T2-weighted imaging
should not be used to delineate the area at risk in ischemic myocardial injury. Radiology. 2012; 265: 12-22.
24. Eitel I, Friedrich MG. T2-weighted cardiovascular magnetic resonance in acute cardiac disease.
Journal of cardiovascular magnetic resonance : official journal of the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. 2011; 13: 13.
25. Schwitter J, Arai AE. Assessment of cardiac ischaemia and viability: Role of cardiovascular
magnetic resonance. Eur. Heart J. 2011; 32: 799-809.
26. Garcia-Dorado D, Andres-Villarreal M, Ruiz-Meana M, Inserte J, Barba I. Myocardial edema: A
translational view. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 2012; 52: 931-939.
27. Ghugre NR, Pop M, Barry J, Connelly KA, Wright GA. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging
can distinguish remodeling mechanisms after acute myocardial infarction based on the severity of ischemic insult. Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2013; 70: 1095-1105.
28. Klocke FJ. Cardiac magnetic resonance measurements of area at risk and infarct size in ischemic
syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010; 55: 2489-2490.
29. Garcia-Prieto J, Garcia-Ruiz JM, Sanz-Rosa D, et al. Beta3 adrenergic receptor selective stimulation
during ischemia/reperfusion improves cardiac function in translational models through inhibition of mptp opening in cardiomyocytes. Basic Res. Cardiol. 2014; 109: 422.
30. Kim RJ, Albert TS, Wible JH, et al. Performance of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance
imaging with gadoversetamide contrast for the detection and assessment of myocardial infarction: An international, multicenter, double-blinded, randomized trial. Circulation. 2008; 117: 629-637.
31. Wu E, Judd RM, Vargas JD, et al. Visualisation of presence, location, and transmural extent of
healed q-wave and non-q-wave myocardial infarction. Lancet. 2001; 357: 21-28.
32. Pennell D. Myocardial salvage: Retrospection, resolution, and radio waves. Circulation. 2006; 113:
1821-1823.
33. Arai AE. Using magnetic resonance imaging to characterize recent myocardial injury: Utility in
acute coronary syndrome and other clinical scenarios. Circulation. 2008; 118: 795-796.
34. Ugander M, Bagi PS, Oki AJ, et al. Myocardial edema as detected by pre-contrast t1 and t2 cmr
delineates area at risk associated with acute myocardial infarction. JACC. Cardiovascular imaging. 2012; 5: 596-603.
35. Verhaert D, Thavendiranathan P, Giri S, et al. Direct t2 quantification of myocardial edema in acute
ischemic injury. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4: 269-278.
36. Fernandez-Jimenez R, Fernández-Friera L, Sanchez-Gonzalez J, Ibanez B. Animal models of tissue
characterization of area at risk, edema and fibrosis. Curr Cardiovasc Imaging Rep. 2014; 7: 1-10.
37. Foltz WD, Yang Y, Graham JJ, et al. Mri relaxation fluctuations in acute reperfused hemorrhagic
infarction. Magnetic resonance in medicine : official journal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine / Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2006; 56: 1311-1319.
38. Foltz WD, Yang Y, Graham JJ, et al. T2 fluctuations in ischemic and post-ischemic viable porcine
myocardium in vivo. Journal of cardiovascular magnetic resonance : official journal of the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. 2006; 8: 469-474.
39. Lotan CS, Bouchard A, Cranney GB, Bishop SP, Pohost GM. Assessment of postreperfusion
myocardial hemorrhage using proton nmr imaging at 1.5 t. Circulation. 1992; 86: 1018-1025.
40. Weaver ME, Pantely GA, Bristow JD, Ladley HD. A quantitative study of the anatomy and
distribution of coronary arteries in swine in comparison with other animals and man. Cardiovasc. Res. 1986; 20: 907-917.
41. Maxwell MP, Hearse DJ, Yellon DM. Species variation in the coronary collateral circulation during
regional myocardial ischaemia: A critical determinant of the rate of evolution and extent of myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc. Res. 1987; 21: 737-746.
FIGURE LEGENDS
Figure 1. Study design. The study population comprised 5 groups of pigs (n=5/group) which were used for the characterization of myocardial edema during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). CMR (cardiac magnetic resonance) scans including T2W-STIR and T2-mapping sequences were performed at every follow-up until sacrifice (i.e. animals sacrificed at day7 underwent baseline, 120min, 24h, day4 and day7 CMR).
Figure 2. Time course of cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) T2 relaxation time and corresponding myocardial water content during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion.
(A) Time course of the absolute T2 relaxation time values (ms) in the ischemic myocardium during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion (I/R). Bars represent mean and standard error of the mean. The top of the panel shows representative images from one animal that underwent 40min/7days I/R and CMR T2W-STIR and T2-mapping exams at all time-points. All T2 maps were scaled between 30 and 120ms.
(B) Time course of absolute differences (%) in water content between ischemic (mid-apical anteroseptal left ventricular wall) and remote (posterolateral left ventricular wall) zones during the first week after I/R. Bars represent mean and standard error of the mean. Absolute differences were 0.0±0.2 % for Group 1 (sacrificed at baseline with no other intervention than CMR), 5.2±0.6 % for Group 2 (I/R-120min), 1.1±0.7 % for Group 3 (I/R-24hours), 2.4±1.3% for Group 4 (I/R-4days), and 5.1±1.0 % for Group 5 (I/R-7days). All pairwise comparisons for the absolute differences in myocardial water content were explored, adjusting p-value for multiple comparisons using Holm-Bonferroni correction. Comparisons between different groups remained statistically significant with the exception of the following: Group 1 (Control) vs
Group 3 (I/R-24hours), Group 3 (I/R-24hours) vs Group 4 (I/R-4days), and Group 2 (I/R-120min) vs Group 5 (I/R-7days).
Note the parallel course of the fluctuations in CMR and histologically determined edema (dashed red lines).
Figure 3. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) T2W-STIR and T2 mapping images from different animals during the one week time course after ischemia/reperfusion.
Serial CMR scans reveal highly consistent bimodal changes in image-determined myocardial edema during the first week after I/R, both in T2W-STIR imaging (A) and T2-mapping (B). Images from eight pigs at different time points are shown. All T2 maps were scaled between 30 and 120ms.
I: ischemia, R: reperfusion.
Figure 4 (Central Illustration). Edematous reaction after ischemia/reperfusion follows a bimodal pattern: The Bimodal Edema Phenomenon.
The development of myocardial edema is a well-known phenomenon occurring after ischemia/reperfusion (myocardial infarction). This edematous reaction was long assumed to be stable for at least 1 week, but the post-ischemia/reperfusion phase was not previously tracked in a comprehensive serial study.
In the present experimental study, analysis by advanced cardiac magnetic resonance and histopathology showed that post-ischemia/reperfusion edema is bimodal. An initial wave of edema abruptly appears upon reperfusion and almost completely disappears at 24 hours. A deferred wave appears later and increases progressively until day 7.
Table 1. Measurements of T2 relaxation time (ms) in the ischemic and remote myocardium at different time-points during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion.
T2 relaxation times (ms)
Baseline R-120min R-24hours R-Day4 R-Day7
Group 1 I 47.7 (4.0)
(Control) R 46.1 (1.5)
Group 2 I 48.7 (0.6) 73.3 (10.0)
(I/R-120min) R 46.8 (1.8) 47.0 (1.0)
Group 3 I 46.5 (1.9) 72.4 (12.3) 45.9 (5.3)
(I/R-24hour) R 46.2 (2.6) 48.6 (3.0) 45.2 (0.6)
Group 4 I 45.9 (1.6) 73.5 (4.2) 42.7 (9.3) 55.1 (13.2)
(I/R-4days) R 45.5 (0.8) 48.3 (4.0) 47.5 (3.1) 48.2 (2.9)
Group 5 I 47.2 (3.5) 72.6 (14.2) 47.0 (2.9) 64.9 (7.9) 78.4 (10.6)
(I/R-7days) R 46.7 (1.5) 48.5 (3.7) 51.4 (5.0) 50.1 (1.8) 50.0 (3.3)
I 47.2 (2.6) 72.9 (9.9) 45.2 (6.2) 60.0 (11.5) 78.4 (10.6)
Pooled
R 46.3 (1.7) 48.1 (3.0) 48.0 (4.1) 49.1 (2.5) 50.0 (3.3)
Values are mean (standard deviation). All pairwise comparisons for pooled serial T2 relaxation times were explored, adjusting p-value for multiple comparisons using Holm-Bonferroni correction. Comparisons between different time-points in the ischemic myocardium remained statistically significant with the exception of the following: Baseline vs. R-24hours, and R-120min vs. R-Day7. I: Ischemic myocardium. R: Remote myocardium
Table 2. Measurements of myocardial water content (%) in the ischemic and remote myocardium at different time-points during the first week after ischemia/reperfusion.
Water content (%)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
(Control) (I/R-120min) (I/R-24hour) (I/R-4days) (I/R-7days)
I 79.4 (0.6) 84.5 (0.5) 81.2 (0.5) 82.5 (1.4) 85.2 (0.9)
R 79.4 (0.7) 79.4 (0.4) 80.0 (0.4) 80.1 (0.4) 80.1 (0.3)
Values are mean (standard deviation). All pairwise comparisons for myocardial water content were explored, adjusting p-value for multiple comparisons using Holm-Bonferroni correction. Comparisons between different groups in the ischemic myocardium remained statistically significant with the exception of the following: Group 2 (I/R-120min) vs. Group 5 (I/R-7days). I: Ischemic myocardium. R: Remote myocardium
BASELINE
Group 1 (n=5)
iirnnri
40m Ischemia/ Reperfusion
120 min
CMR n = 20
Group 2 (n =5)
Sacrifice
24 hours
! Group 3
Sacrifice
CMR n = 10
Group 4
Sacrifice
CMR n = 5
Group 5 (n =5)
Sacrifice
'<*> -
I-40min/R-120 min
(Group 2)
I-40min/R-24 hours
(Group 3)
I-40min/R-4 days
(Group 4)
I-40min/R-7 days
(Group 5)
I-40min/R-120 min
(Group 2)
I-40min/R-24 hours
(Group 3)
I-40min/R-4 days
(Group 4)
I-40min/R-7 days
(Group 5)
120 min
Edematous Reaction after Ischemia/Reperfusion follows a Bimodal Pattern
-24 hours R-Day 4
120 ms
Baseline R-120 min
( ^ «
¿A // V.
Water content T2 relaxation times
INITIAL
DEFERRED
