Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods

Protus Simatende; Tendekayi Henry Gadaga; Stanley Jabulani Nkambule; Muthulisi Siwela

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Journal of Ethnic Foods

journal homepage: http://journalofethnicfoods.net

Original article

Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods

Protus Simatende a b, Tendekayi Henry Gadaga a *, Stanley Jabulani Nkambule a, Muthulisi Siwela b

a Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Swaziland, Mbabane, Swaziland b College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa

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ARTICLE INFO

Article history: Received 18 May 2015 Received in revised form 21 June 2015 Accepted 7 July 2015 Available online 28 August 2015

Keywords: buganu emahewu emasi

umcombotsi Swaziland

ABSTRACT

Background: Fermentation is an age old technique of preserving food in many communities. A wide range of fermented products are prepared by varying the types of raw materials, utensils, and fermentation times. Several fermented foods are consumed in Swaziland. A survey of the types of fermented foods, preparation methods, and utensils used was done in the Hhohho region of Swaziland. The current study aimed at documenting the preparation methods of emahewu, emasi, umcombotsi, and buganu at household levels.

Methods: Detailed fermentation steps were documented for umcombotsi, emahewu, buganu, and emasi. Five constituencies, called tinkhundla, were randomly selected from the 14 found in the Hhohho region of Swaziland. At each inkhundla, households that were known to regularly prepare the fermented foods were identified with the assistance of local community leaders and were interviewed. A semistructured questionnaire was used for the face-to-face interviews.

Results: With respect to preparation procedures and practices, all respondents indicated that they had prepared different fermented foods at one time or another. The most commonly prepared and readily available fermented foods were umcombotsi (alcoholic beverage), emahewu (nonalcoholic beverage), buganu (marula wine), and emasi (spontaneously fermented milk). Both men and women indicated that they prepared umcombotsi, and only women reported that they prepared emahewu, buganu, and emasi. Umcombotsi was mainly prepared for sale, while buganu, emahewu, and emasi were for sale as well as for household consumption. Umcombotsi was mostly prepared by mixing maize meal, unmilled sorghum malt (magayiwe), and brown sugar (3 kg) in water (20 L). The initial stage involved cooking the mixture to gelatinize the starch, followed by fermentation at ambient temperature (25—30°C) for about 72 hours. The whole preparation process takes about 4—5 days. Emahewu was prepared by mixing maize meal (1 kg) with water (5 L) and cooking to make a soft porridge. The cooled porridge was left to ferment at room temperature. Some reported adding sugar or a peeled potato to aid the fermentation process. Emasi was prepared by letting raw milk to naturally ferment at room temperature (25—30°C) in either metal or plastic containers (buckets) for 2—3 days. Buganu was prepared from marula fruit (amaganu) juice and pulp mixed with water (10 L) and sugar (2 kg). The mixture was allowed to ferment at ambient temperature for about 3 days, sieved, and then served.

Conclusion: Umcombotsi, emahewu, buganu, and emasi were the fermented foods commonly prepared at a household level in the Hhohho region, Swaziland. The main ingredient used for preparing umcombotsi and emahewu was maize meal. Unmilled sorghum malt was also added during preparation of umcom-botsi. However, typically no malt was added during the preparation of emahewu. Buganu and emasi also play an important role in the diet and socioeconomic activities of the population in Swaziland.

* Corresponding author. Department of Environmental Health Science, University of Swaziland, P.O. Box 369, Mbabane, H100, Swaziland. E-mail address: tgadaga@gmail.com (T.H. Gadaga).

1. Introduction

Several traditional spontaneously fermented foods are prepared in households in Africa [1,2]. Numerous investigations have revealed the important role of this technique including making the raw materials more palatable and extending the shelf life of the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jef.2015.08.008

product. Various benefits of fermentation have been reported such as improved bioavailability of some nutrients, destruction of anti-nutritional compounds such as tannins, phytates, and polyphenols, as well as inhibition of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms facilitated by the low pH [3,4]. Cereals, fruits, and milk are common raw ingredients used in these preparations. African traditional fermentation technologies are at best an art; hence, the fermentation products vary in quality depending on the type of raw materials, types of containers used, and environmental conditions [5—8]. However, the communities where a specific product is made normally have well-known and agreed steps for its preparation. For example, Simango [9] described mahewu prepared in Zimbabwe as a maize-based cereal gruel with added malt. The malt provides the inoculum and enzymes for spontaneous fermentation. In South Africa, traditional fermented milk (amasi) is prepared in several types of containers of varying sizes. Buekes et al [6] reported that the Xhosa and Zulu people mainly use calabashes to make amasi, while the South Sotho use clay pots to make a similar product called mafi. The use of clay pots reportedly gives a better flavor to the fermented milk than calabashes. The types of container used, as well as the environmental conditions, contribute to the gradual selection of specific microorganisms that are responsible for the perceived flavor [6].

Common traditional fermented foods consumed in Swaziland include nonalcoholic cereal beverage (emahewu), spontaneously fermented milk (emasi), fermented porridge (incwancwa), fermented maize meal (sancoti), fermented marula fruit juice and pulp (buganu), alcoholic cereal beverage (umcombotsi), and malt distilled spirits (mankanjane) [10]. The importance of these products to the diet and socio-cultural wellbeing of the Swazi community is well documented. However, details of the preparation steps have not been

¡ Magayiwe or

Mnandi (un-milled sorghum malt) (1 kg)

Brown sugar (3 kg)

Fig. 1. Commonly practiced traditional preparation method for umcombotsi, Swazi maize meal and sorghum malt based alcoholic beverage.

systematically studied and recorded. It is important to document the process, quantify the ingredients and identify the key conditions for a successful fermentation in order to replicate the process under standardized conditions and ultimately at industrial level. The current study's aim was to document the steps and equipment used in the preparation of four products, emahewu, emasi, umcombotsi, and buganu prepared at household level in Swaziland.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Location of study and selection of households

The study was conducted in the Hhohho region of Swaziland. The region is divided into 14 local administrations called tink-hundla. The Hhohho region is in the Highveld of the country where the temperatures can range from the very cold in winter to hot in summer. Using a lottery system, five tinkhundla were selected for the study. At each inkhundla, members of the community who were known to prepare fermented foods were identified with the assistance of community leaders, such as the village head (umphakatsi) or schoolteachers.

2.2. Preparation methods

Using a semistructured questionnaire, preparation steps and the utensils or equipment used for the different fermented foods were

Fig. 2. A variation of traditional preparation of umcombotsi, Swazi maize meal, and sorghum malt based alcoholic beverage that uses back-slopping.

recorded. Demographic characteristics (sex of the person preparing the food), purpose of preparing, and any cultural restrictions on the consumption of the fermented food were also obtained for each of the four products.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Demographic characteristics and practices

Twenty-five respondents who prepared fermented foods were interviewed. The fermented foods that were commonly prepared were umcombotsi, buganu, emahewu, and emasi. All respondents indicated that they had prepared all these different products at one time or another, but did not always have them available. Among those preparing umcombotsi, 50% were men and 50% women. However, all respondents who prepared emahewu, emasi, and buganu were women.

All respondents who prepared umcombotsi reported that it was for sale and a major source of income. Hence, 25% were making a new batch of umcombotsi every 3 days, while 50% made a batch every week and 25% made a batch every month. Umcombotsi was only consumed by adults, as it has a high alcohol content.

Equipment and ingredients used in preparing the different fermented foods were also documented. Generally, metal drums, traditional clay pots, and plastic containers were used for preparing umcombotsi and buganu. Plastic buckets, aluminum pots, and clay

pots were reported to be used for mixing ingredients for emahewu and for fermentation and storage of emasi.

3.2. Ingredients and methods of preparation

3.2.1. Umcombotsi

The main ingredients used in preparation of umcombotsi were found to be similar in the different households. Umcombotsi was mainly prepared by mixing maize meal, unmilled sorghum malt (known as magayiwe or mnandi), and brown sugar (3 kg) in water (20 L). The common method for preparation involved adding maize meal (5 kg) to water (20 L) to make a slurry, and cooking the mixture in three-legged cast iron pots or metal drums to gelatinize the starch as shown in Fig. 1. Cooking time was not standardized. It depended on visual and rheological observations made by the person preparing the product. Sorghum malt (magayiwe; 1 kg) was then added to the cooled soft porridge, followed by brown sugar (3 kg). The whole mixture was fermented at ambient temperature (25—30° C) for about 72 hours to give a brown colored beverage. As shown in Fig. 1, the whole preparation process takes about 4—5 days. However, one respondent described a slight modification of the above method which is outlined in Fig. 2. Thin maize meal porridge was inoculated with strainings (emashica) from a previous successful fermentation and the mixture was fermented for 18 hours to 24 hours. This was then followed by a cooking step and cooling. The cooled, soured product was further inoculated with a small amount of previous ferment called sibiliso or ingwebu, and

Fig. 3. Umcombotsi ingredients and products at different preparation stages, and some of the utensils used. (A) Sorghum malt. (B) Fermenting beverage. (C) Strainer/sieve with strained malt. (D) Strained umcombotsi. (E) Containers used during preparation of umcombotsi.

Fig. 4. Traditional preparation of emahewu in Swaziland. * Adding malt (magayiwe) for emahewu can be done to speed up the process.

allowed to ferment for about 8 hours and sieved as previously described. Magayiwe, sugar, and water are added after this second fermentation, if needed. Although the actual preparation steps in this latter method were more than those shown in Fig. 1, the fermentation time in the second approach was shorter by about a day. This can be attributed to the back-slopping with emashica and sibiliso that speeds up the fermentation. Back-slopping adds microorganisms that are well adapted to the fermentation media and the desired pH and organoleptic properties are achieved much quicker. Similar African beers with sorghum malt have been found to have alcohol content ranging from 2% to 4.5% (v/v), and pH of between 3.3 and 4 [11].

Fig. 3A—E shows some of the intermediary products and equipment used during preparation of umcombotsi. The brew can be thinned by occasionally adding more water and stirring. This thin brew was then sieved (Fig. 3C) and served. Respondents

reported that they obtained their malt from supermarkets. Two brands, magayiwe and mnandi, were commonly used.

The method for preparing umcombotsi was in many ways similar to the traditional preparation of Sesotho joala reported by Gadaga et al [12]. However, in preparing joala, maize meal could be replaced or used together with wheat or sorghum flour. Briefly, this starch base is mixed with water and cooked to make a thin porridge. Homemade liquid starter culture called tomoso and brown sugar are then added to kick start the fermentation. After 48 hours, the mixture is boiled, which tends to kill most of the mes-ophilic souring bacteria. This is similar to the second cooking stage for umcombotsi shown in Fig. 3B. After cooling, sorghum malt and a dry starter culture called moroko are added and fermented for an additional 24 hours. The product is then strained, ready for consumption. The second starter is thought to predominantly contain yeasts, as the associated fermentation is alcoholic. Moroko may be comparable with dried emashica or sibiliso/ingwebu. The preparation of joala takes 3—4 days, similar to umcombotsi, but there are more elaborate steps. Preparation of doro, a sorghum beer from Zimbabwe, takes 5—7 days [5,13]. Umqombothi is the Shangaan name given to a similar sorghum beer in South Africa [14,15]. The differences in the quality of ingredients, utensils used, and preparation times are probably the only distinguishing characteristics of these products.

3.2.2. Emahewu

Emahewu is a nonalcoholic beverage which is consumed by all members of the family, including infants. Interviews with women who prepared the product showed that it was prepared by mixing maize meal (1 kg) with water (5 L), or in the same proportions as described for umcombotsi. The outline for preparation is shown in Fig. 4. The thin slurry was then cooked to make a soft porridge called umhidvo, cooled, and left to ferment at room temperature. No malt was added but some households added sugar or a peeled potato. Emahewu therefore lacks enzymes that come with addition of malt to kick start the fermentation. However, some bacterial inoculum may come with the added potato and may be present on the utensils used during handling. Brown sugar is often added and it provides a readily fermentable substrate for any microorganisms present. In contrast, similar fermented products prepared in other countries, such as mahewu/mageu in South Africa, have sorghum or millet malt added after the cooking stage and therefore develops a low pH and high counts of fermenting microorganisms [15].

The current practice at a household level in Swaziland is a cause for concern as the final product may be susceptible to proliferation of harmful microorganisms. Fermentation takes a long time (2—3 days in summer and up to 5 days in winter). The usual protection

Fig. 5. Utensils used in preparing emahewu in Swaziland.

Fig. 6. Traditional preparation of emasi, Swazi sour milk.

Raw cow's milk

Fermentation (25-30oC/48 h)

[Use plastic or metal containers]

Clean, ripe marula fruits (emaganu)

due to low pH is not achieved fast enough. Byaruhanga et al [16] reported that mageu in South Africa was prepared by using 8% to 10% (w/v) maize flour as the major solid substrate in water. Wheat flour or maize bran was then added to initiate the lactic acid fermentation. Acceptable mageu reportedly contained 0.4—0.5% lactic acid, corresponding to an average pH of 3.5 [17]. Fig. 5 shows the utensils used in preparing and storing emahewu.

3.2.3. Emasi

The outline for the preparation of emasi is shown in Fig. 6. The fermented milk was prepared by leaving raw milk to spontaneously ferment at room temperature in either metal or plastic containers or clay pots. The whey was occasionally decanted to give a thick product similar in consistency to cottage cheese (Fig. 7). This suggests that emasi could have high numbers of fermenting microorganisms and a low pH. This is similar to that practiced in many Southern African countries in preparing amasi, sethemi, mafi, or madila [5—7,12,18]. The Sotho mafi is traditionally prepared by allowing raw milk to ferment spontaneously in clay pots until thick curds form. This may take 2—3 days at 25—30°C [12]. To prepare madila, fresh milk is filtered through a strainer and placed in an enamel/metal bucket and fermented in a warm place (30°C) for 24 hours [18]. The soured milk is then poured into a woven polypropylene sack and additional 1-day-old soured milk is added each day over a 7—8-day period. The bag is hung from a beam for 3—4 days during which time the whey drains away through the woven

Fig. 8. Traditional preparation of Swazi naturally fermented marula wine, buganu.

bag. Finally the fermented milk is removed from the bag and mixed with fresh milk in a ratio of 4:1 before consumption or sale [18].

While the above similarities have been noted, the nature of fermented products varies from one region to another depending on the local indigenous microflora, which in turn reflects the climatic conditions of the area [19].

3.2.4. Buganu

Buganu is a potent wine made from the ripe fruits of the marula tree (Scleroecarya birrea; amaganu), which are yellow in color and are predominantly found in the Lowveld of Swaziland. Women in the villages collect the fruits and make marula beer used in the celebration of the first fruit ceremonies. In the past, buganu was

Emashica fermented pulp, seed]

Sugar (2 kg)

Fig. 9. Marula. (A) The marula tree. (B) Marula fruits. (C) Fermented marula fruit wine.

often first offered to the chief or headman before everyone else and was thought to be important in strengthening social networks between friends, neighbors, and relatives [20]. In present day Swaziland, an annual marula festival with a lot of cultural activities, and attended by the King, is held.

The traditional production process for buganu is outlined in Fig. 8. Respondents in the current study reported that freshly ripe marula fruits (10 kg) are cleaned thoroughly and pounded or pressed to extract the juice (Fig. 9). The juice, pulp, and seeds from the fruit are transferred to a 20 L container (Fig. 9C). Plastic buckets are commonly used. Water (10 L) is then added and the mixture stirred. Sugar (2 kg) is also added and mixed, and left to ferment at ambient temperature for about 3 days. During this time the mixture becomes gelatinous in consistency with gas bubbles showing signs of fermentation. The gelatinous mixture is then stirred to make it thin, followed by sieving using a traditional grass sieve or metal mesh similar to the one described for umcombotsi. Some respondents also reported adding sugar after sieving and allowing further fermentation for 12 hours before serving. This production process was generally in agreement with that described by Masarirambi et al [10]. While plastic buckets were used, it was also observed that traditional clay pots or gourds (ingula) could also be used.

Marula fruit also plays an important nutritional and socioeconomic role in other countries in Southern Africa. For example, Shackleton and Shackleton [21] reported that over 90% of households in Limpopo province of South Africa collected marula fruit mainly to make beer, and also to consume fresh, make into juice, and/or process into jam. About 74% of households in the Limpopo study produced between 138 L and 311 L of marula wine, which is locally called vukanyi, each season. The wine is shared with friends, relatives, and neighbors, while a few households prepared it for sale. In the South African study, beer brewing was primarily done by women. Production of a marula alcoholic beverage on an industrial commercial scale has been achieved in South Africa and a commercial wild fruit cocktail, Amarula, is now available on the market. A similar traditional marula wine is prepared in Zimbabwe and Namibia [5]. Gadaga et al [5] also reported that both fermentative and nonfermentative yeasts have been isolated from the marula fruits.

4. Conclusion

Umcombotsi (alcoholic beverage), emahewu (nonalcoholic beverage), buganu (marula wine), and emasi (spontaneously fermented milk) were the fermented foods commonly prepared at a household level in the Hhohho region. The fermented foods were prepared for own consumption, as well as for sale. The main ingredient used for preparing umcombotsi and emahewu was maize meal. Unmilled sorghum malt (magayiwe or mnandi) was also added during preparation of umcombotsi. However, typically no malt was added during the preparation of emahewu, although brown sugar or a peeled potato could be added to aid the fermentation. Amaganu are of high cultural significance in Swaziland with many cultural festivities held to celebrate the ceremony of first fruits. The alcoholic beverage, buganu, is the center of the activities. Buganu also bring income to many families. Emasi is an important part of the diet and consumed by all members of the household. Further studies on the biochemical and microbial characteristics of the products are ongoing.

Conflicts of interest

All authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by the University of Swaziland Research Board under the project titled Screening for probiotics in Swazi traditional fermented foods.

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Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods Academic research paper on "Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries"

Abstract of research paper on Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries, author of scientific article — Protus Simatende, Tendekayi Henry Gadaga, Stanley Jabulani Nkambule, Muthulisi Siwela

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Academic research paper on topic "Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods"